By Will Atwater
Mid-September signals the soon-to-arrive familiar fall rhythms: leaves preparing to turn from green to gold and crimson, pumpkin spice flavors reappearing on menus and migratory birds filling the skies.
Along with these seasonal markers comes a more troubling one — the likely spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza, or bird flu.
Experts say that, in the past, the seasonal spread of bird flu followed a predictable pattern.
“Until about two to three years ago, the highly pathogenic avian influenza, otherwise known as bird flu, [was transmitted] by migratory waterfowl as they were flying from summer nesting grounds up in the Arctic circle down to winter nesting grounds in the tropics,” said Matt Koci, co-director of the N.C. State Animal Health and Nutrition Consortium.
Koci said migratory waterfowl used to be the main carriers of bird flu, and would spread the virus as they flew over farms and roosted in nearby ponds. Their droppings or extended presence increased the risk of introducing the virus to domestic flocks.
But recently researchers have noticed a change in the way the disease spreads.
“There’s still kind of a seasonality to it — as birds migrate past us, there’s more bird flu in the area,” Koci said. “But what’s happened in the last two years is birds that don’t migrate seem to be holding on to it now. So there’s always some low level of bird flu simmering out there in the woods in nonmigratory birds, posing a risk to poultry farms and now, potentially, to dairy cows as well.”
Infections have also spread to humans.
In 2024, the United States saw a sharp rise in highly pathogenic avian influenza across poultry, cattle and people. Nationwide, outbreaks in poultry have led to the loss of nearly 170 million birds through death or culling since 2022, according to federal records.
By the end of 2024, H5N1 had spread to hundreds of dairy herds in 16 U.S. states. While most infected cows recovered, some herds reported cattle deaths or culling due to complications. The virus caused 61 human infections, largely among farmworkers. By early 2025, the tally climbed to 66 cases, including the nation’s first human bird flu death.
North Carolina, one of the country’s largest poultry producers, has not reported any human cases, but the state has seen its share of outbreaks in recent years. Since 2022, more than 3.8 million chickens and turkeys have been affected in commercial and backyard flocks across counties in the eastern coastal plain, including Wayne, Duplin, Lenoir, Sampson and Hyde, according to the N.C. Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. The state has also had documented infections in large commercial flocks and in smaller independent farms, underscoring the risk the virus poses to the industry.
Complicating the problem
For years, environmental advocates have pressed for greater transparency in North Carolina’s poultry industry. They argue that the Department of Environmental Quality has been hamstrung in its ability to regulate the industry effectively. A major obstacle is North Carolina General Statute 106-24.1, which shields many details of animal feeding operations from public scrutiny — including the exact locations of commercial poultry farms.
In 2022, Michelle Nowlin, co-director of the Duke Environmental Law and Policy Clinic, told NCHN that the General Assembly had enacted laws restricting citizens’ access to information about complaints filed against poultry operations. She noted that legislators had eroded NCDEQ’s funding and authority to regulate facilities and protect water quality, human health and air quality—while also limiting citizens’ ability to hold the industry accountable. Those concerns, stoked by growing presence of bird flu, have elevated calls by activists to provide more industry transparency.
What we know
On Sept. 4, 2025, the Raleigh-based North Carolina Environmental Justice Network made a public records request to the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. The request seeks records on poultry operations and their role in spreading bird flu, according to a news release issued by the group. Several other environmental organizations — such as the Center for Biological Diversity, Clean Water for North Carolina and the Socially Responsible Agriculture Project — joined the effort.
NCEJN pointed to a January outbreak in Hyde County that infected 3.3 million birds.
“Concerningly, this strain of flu has spread into industrial dairy herds, a growing number of wild mammal species, and even humans, raising concern for future human-to-human transmission,” the group’s release said.
NCEJN said it received an email from the NCDA and CS confirming the agency would provide “all non-confidential documents responsive to the request as promptly as possible.”
Protective measures
A Louisiana resident, who was older than 65 and had pre-existing health issues, died in January after contracting the disease, according to a Louisiana Department of Health news release.
In North Carolina, health officials are closely tracking potential spread among people. “We do some hospital-based surveillance for people who are hospitalized for influenza,” said Emma Doran, medical epidemiologist at the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services. “We also look at influenza in our wastewater treatment sites throughout the state.”
Doran explained that the department pays particular attention to farmworkers who may be at higher risk. “When we know that a herd has tested positive in North Carolina, we reach out to workers on that site to provide information about protective equipment, what symptoms to watch for, and we do some active monitoring,” she said.
Tips to limit bird flu exposure:
Avoid direct contact with sick or dead wild birds, poultry or other possibly infected animals. And if you feed birds, it’s a good idea to wash up well after handling bird feeders and other equipment where birds land.
If you do handle a dead bird, use personal protective equipment — gloves, eye protection and a mask.
Dispose of dead birds/animals safely: Wear disposable gloves, use a shovel or plastic bag, double bag it. Wash hands thoroughly afterward.
Monitor for symptoms if you’ve been exposed (to dead or sick animals, wild birds): fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, etc. If sick, contact health care providers.
Report sick or dead wildlife: Call the N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission Helpline at 866-318-2401.
Try to keep pets (especially outdoor cats) away from wild birds or carcasses. Avoid letting pets eat them.
More information and updates on highly pathogenic avian influenza are on the NCDHHS website, flu.ncdhhs.gov/HPAI/index.htm, or the NCDA&CS site, www.ncagr.gov/divisions/veterinary/AvianInfluenza.
Officials conduct virologic surveillance to ensure that any flu cases are carefully analyzed.
“When people test positive for the flu, we make sure to subtype it so we can catch any instances of H5N1,” Doran said. “Samples are sent to our state lab for that specific testing.”
The state also has a network of facilities for tracking animal infections.
“We have a state diagnostic lab system. The main diagnostic lab for animal diseases is in Raleigh and called the Rollins Animal Diagnostic Lab,” said North Carolina State Veterinarian Mike Martin. The state has three satellite labs in the network, near Monroe, Asheville and Elkin, he said.
Containment and confidentiality
In addition to the movement of animals contributing to bird flu spread, experts believe that farm workers moving between poultry and dairy operations may have contributed to its spread into and among cattle herds.
In response, farms have adopted stricter biosecurity measures to reduce the risk of transmission. These include quarantining sites where outbreaks occur and requiring inspectors to wear full protective gear — such as eye protection, Tyvek suits, double gloves and boots. Workers are also using hand and spray disinfectants, along with dried bleach footbaths, to further limit the chance of carrying the virus from one site to another, Martin said.
Alongside these biosecurity measures, state law plays a central role in shaping outbreak response. North Carolina law tightly restricts the release of farm data, allowing access only on a need-to-know basis. Inspectors and partner agencies are given safety guidance without disclosing sensitive details — for example, whether an area is safe to enter or should be avoided temporarily, Martin said. Protecting this information is critical for legal reasons and to maintain farmers’ trust, he said.
In one case, a dairy farmer’s identity became known despite efforts at confidentiality, leading to public harassment and reputational harm, Martin said.To prevent such outcomes, state and local agencies work closely with federal partners to balance privacy with effective outbreak control, refining the system after each incident to improve future responses, he said.
While bird flu has primarily affected wild and domestic birds and dairy cows, some domestic cats have been infected. To date, several cats in the U.S. have contracted the virus and died, according to the CDC. Experts say cats are most often exposed by coming into contact with infected wild birds or by consuming contaminated raw meat or milk.
There is no evidence cats have transmitted bird flu to humans. Nonetheless, to reduce risks, experts recommend limiting pets’ exposure to wild birds, avoiding raw milk or meat as feed, and monitoring for dead bird sightings around yards or feeders, which could signal local outbreaks.
KEEP UP WITH THE LATEST
Republish our articles for free, online or in print, under a Creative Commons license.
